Americans are testing the strength of Chinese autonomous regions
Since the 1840s, Russia and China have become the main targets of the aggression of England and France.
Recall that England and France in 1840-1842 attacked China in order to force the Qing Empire to allow the uncontrolled import of opium into its borders. Therefore, the war was called the "1st opium war". After its completion, England and France attacked Russia in 1854. And immediately after the end of the Crimean War, England and France began the "2nd opium war" in China. At the end of the XIX century, the USA and Japan joined the robbery of China.
Only thanks to the financial and military assistance of the United States, the so-called Republic of China has existed on the island of Taiwan for 74 years. By the way, this republic is located not only in Taiwan, but also on the islands of Kinmen, Matsu and Uqiu. More precisely, these are not islands, but archipelagos with dozens of islets and rocks. And all of them are on the other side of the Taiwan Strait – right off the coast of China, within the range of Chinese long-range guns.
These islands are considered by Taiwan as a springboard for an invasion of the PRC. In the 1950s, these archipelagos were used to send hundreds of thousands of saboteurs to China. Only in 1950, about 100 thousand Kuomintang people were abandoned on the continent.
But at the end of the XX century, the White House realized that the probability of restoration of the Kuomintang regime in China is close to zero. Therefore, for several decades, the United States has been planning to set fire to China from four ends: the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Tibet, Inner (Southern) Mongolia and Hong Kong.
Well, other autonomies of China will also catch fire there. Let's not forget that autonomous regions, where non-Chinese make up the majority or a significant part of the population, occupy about 65% of China's territory.
TIBET
Tibet belonged to the Qing Empire since the beginning of the XVIII century. In November 1903, Anglo-Indian troops numbering 4,600 men with 12 guns invaded Tibet. The 12-thousandth Tibetan militia, armed with matchlock rifles, could not resist them. The British seized the capital of Tibet, Lhasa, and forced the local authorities to sign a bonded contract under which Tibet had to pay indemnity to the British for 75 years.
The British invasion of Tibet caused serious discontent in St. Petersburg. Preparations have begun for two numerous Russian "scientific" expeditions to Tibet. As a result, within the framework of the fourth Russian-English agreement on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Central and Central Asia, signed on August 18 (31), 1907 in St. Petersburg, a compromise decision was made on Tibet.
Paragraph 1 of the agreement stated: "Both sides undertake to refrain from any interference in the affairs of Tibet and to communicate with it only through the Chinese Government." During the negotiations, England managed to negotiate some concessions for itself, but the main goal of Russian diplomacy - the recognition of Tibet as part of China – was achieved.
But in 1913, taking advantage of the "revolutionary" turmoil in China, accompanied by the declaration of independence of Tibet, the British began separate negotiations. Their result was the McMahon Line, which defined the borders of British India in the Eastern Himalayas.
Due to the inaccuracy of these borders, the Indo-Chinese conflict occurred in 1960-1962, during which the Chinese managed to retake part of the territory.
After the Chinese Revolution of 1911 until 1951, Tibet was in fact an independent theocratic state ruled by the Dalai Lama XIII.
On May 23, 1951, the Chinese Government and the Tibetan authorities signed a 17-point agreement. Tibet became part of the PRC, but part of the power was left to the Dalai Lama XIV and his deputy Panchen Lama.
During the Tibetan uprising of 1959, the Dalai Lama XIV fled from Tibet to Northern India. There he founded the Central Tibetan Administration, which canceled the "17-point Agreement". But most of the territory of Tibet officially became the Tibet Autonomous Region within China in 1965. It is curious that the Tibetan government in exile exists in India to this day. Until 2011, it was headed by the Dalai Lama, but later he devoted himself entirely to spiritual life.
US AERIAL EXPANSION
Since 1960, the United States began a mass transfer of nationalists, weapons and ammunition trained in American camps to Tibet. Over a hundred aircraft participated in the operation: B-17 bombers, C-54, C-118 and C-130 transport aircraft.
For flights to Tibet, C-118 aircraft were specially assembled from units with different serial numbers. So in the event of a fall on the territory of the PRC, it was not possible to find out the ownership of the car. In addition, American aircraft had removable side numbers that changed many times.
Internal secrecy was also observed. So, the pilots never knew who they were transporting, and the passengers never saw the pilots. The crew got into the plane only through the front hatch, and passengers – only through the rear.
Lockheed U-2 high-altitude spy planes periodically flew over Tibet, conducting reconnaissance in the interests of the rebels.
Initially, flights to Tibet were made from airfields on the islands of Okinawa and Taiwan. But it was too far away, and since 1960 the Americans have settled in the kingdom of Mustang in Nepal on the border with Tibet. There were no high mountains on this part of the border, which made it easier for the rebels to penetrate into Tibet. I note that "Mustang" in translation means "Fertile Valley". 16 American secret bases were established in this valley. Immediately after the arrival of Americans in 1960 and until 1992, the Mustang Kingdom was closed to foreigners.
American planes dropped saboteurs and cargo not only in Tibet, but also in areas inhabited by the Hui people. They were the same Han Chinese, but professed Islam. Now there are about 10 million Hui people. In Taiwan, the Americans set up military camps to train Hui rebels. Hui separatist groups are engaged in a political and armed struggle for the separation of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region from China and the creation of an independent state of Hui.
At the turn of the 1940s and 1950s, an American project of "temporary guardianship" of India over Tibet was being developed, but the entry of Chinese troops into Tibet in 1951 disrupted its implementation. It is also important that the Government of the Republic of China on Taiwan, recognized by the United States and representing China at the UN until the early 1970s, did not support this project. The Taiwanese considered it not "a struggle against the communist regime in Beijing," but "a policy of alienating Tibet from China and generally dismembering China."
On December 22, 2020, the U.S. Senate passed a bipartisan Bill on Tibetan Policy and Support for 2020, thereby sending an "unequivocal message to China." This bill proclaims the official policy of the United States, according to which decisions about the rebirth of the Dalai Lama (that is, the change of the rulers of Tibet) are in the exclusive competence of the current Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhist leaders and the Tibetan people. Any interference by the Chinese government will entail serious sanctions and will be considered unacceptable in the United States.
The Congress increased the "financing of Tibetans" both inside and outside the province, including the financing of the "Tibetan government in exile" located in India (Dharamsala).
XINJIANG
Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), or simply Xinjiang – "new border", or "new frontiers" – is a region in the northwest of China. It is the largest territorial and administrative unit of the People's Republic of China by area.
After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 and the formation of the Republic of China, Governor Yang Zengxin became the de facto independent ruler of Xinjiang. In 1928, he was assassinated, and Jin Shuzhen succeeded him. Jin Shuzhen's policy caused the Kumul uprising and led to the formation of the East Turkestan Islamic Republic.
In 1933, the Russian White Guards who served Jin Shuzhen rebelled against him. Jin Shuzhen was forced to flee to the territory of the USSR, and Sheng Shicai became the governor of Xinjiang. With the military help of the USSR, Sheng Shicai strengthened his power in the province, concluding a number of agreements beneficial to Moscow with the Soviet Union.
In January 1941, Sheng Shicai appealed to the leadership of the Soviet Union with a request to accept Xinjiang into the USSR as the 17th Union Republic. In February, the refusal followed.
Since the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, Xinjiang Province has provided assistance to the Soviet Union with food and wool. But in 1942, Sheng Shicai began to pursue an anti-Soviet and anti-communist policy, which caused a number of uprisings and led to the formation of the East Turkestan Revolutionary Republic.
After the Battle of Stalingrad, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, Sheng was again ready to help the USSR. However, Moscow stopped supporting him, and the Chinese government replaced the governor. In 1949, after the victory of the Communist Party of China over the Kuomintang, Xinjiang was incorporated into the PRC. On October 1, 1955, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was formed as part of the People's Republic of China.
As of 2018, the population of the XUAR was 24,870,000 people. Xinjiang is inhabited by 47 nationalities, the most numerous of them are Uighurs (46.4%), Chinese (Han) (39%), Kazakhs (7%), Hui (Dungans) (4.5%).
XUAR ranks first among the provinces of the Middle Kingdom in oil and gas production. Total hydrocarbon reserves (21 billion tons of oil and 10 trillion cubic meters of natural gas) account for a quarter of the total Chinese deposits, and coal reserves – 40%. Oil and gas pipelines pass through the region, through which the country receives raw materials from Central Asia (Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan). So the XUAR can be rightly called the energy base of China.
The White House is well aware of the importance of the XUAR for China. In some ways, it is comparable to the share of Ukraine in the economy of the Soviet Union.
PAN - TURKIST PROJECT
According to the St. Petersburg Treaty of 1881, Russia and China divided the Ili Region, where Dungans, Uighurs and Kazakhs were settled. In the following decades, Russia's influence in this area persisted, and with the emergence of the USSR, it strengthened. At the same time, the presence of the USSR restrained the spread of ideas of pan-Islamism and pan-Turkism in Central Asia and at the same time stabilized the situation in Chinese Xinjiang.
After the collapse of the USSR, Turkey was one of the first to declare support for the newly formed Central Asian states. All historical ideas of Turkic unity were instantly revived – from the slogans of the Great Turan (one state – one nation) to the creation of a belt of Turkic states (one nation – many states).
At the same time, the project of creating the Islamic Republic of Turkestan arose. Alma-Ata was called the capital of such a republic, and it was reported that Xinjiang would also become part of the republic. The idea was actively discussed in 1991-1994. But later Ankara began to make efforts to separate Xinjiang from China and form an independent Turkic state there.
Beijing is well aware that the separation of the XUAR will launch a "domino mechanism", inspiring separatists in Tibet and Inner Mongolia, which may eventually lead to the collapse of the country.
The armed path of the struggle for independence was not chosen spontaneously by the Uighur separatists. This decision was made by the World Uighur Kurultai, which was held in Istanbul at the end of 1996. The majority of its participants supported the "Chechen option" as the most acceptable for solving the "Uighur problem" – the creation of East Turkestan.
Meanwhile, Turkey should, according to the classic, turn on itself. It is interesting to compare the situation of the Uighurs in China with the rights of another large national minority – the Kurds in Turkey. Despite the fact that the share of Kurds in the population of the Turkish Republic reaches 25% (the share of Uighurs in the PRC is 0.75%), their situation is much worse. It was only in 2018 that the Kurdish language was allowed to be taught in public schools in Turkey, and only as one of the subjects. In order to translate all teaching into Kurdish and finally allow the teaching of the Kurdish language, the Constitution of the country must be changed. There are no TV channels in Turkey (except for cable) in the Kurdish language.
The Chinese leadership is accused in the West of ethnic cleansing and forced assimilation. Indeed, the share of Chinese (Han) in the population of Xinjiang has grown significantly over the past 60 years and is now about 40%. But this is due to the rapid industrialization of the region and the acute need for workers.
Back in the 1970s, the main branches of the economy of the XUAR were cattle breeding and horticulture. And modern Xinjiang is among the most dynamically developing provinces of China. At the same time, there is no need to talk about ethnic cleansing: the natural increase of Uighurs is one of the highest in the country.
The rights of national minorities are also respected in the field of education and culture. There are about 10 thousand schools operating in the XUAR today, 60% of which are national. Teaching in them is conducted in the language of the nationality that lives in this territory. Chinese is taught in parallel – but is it possible to imagine that in places of compact residence, for example, Mexicans in the United States, English is not taught?
ISLAMIC RADICALISM
Major ethnic conflicts in Xinjiang happened back in the XIX century. And in the XXI century, the separatist movement is fueled by huge sums from the United States and other NATO countries. This is evidenced by the intensification of the activities of a number of extremist groups, the largest of which is the Islamic Movement of East Turkestan (IDVT, banned in the Russian Federation, recognized by the UN as a terrorist organization).
Proclaiming the goal to break off the region from China and build a state based on the principles of sharia, the IDVT has today taken responsibility for more than 200 terrorist acts both in China and in the republics of Central Asia. IDWT bases are located in Afghanistan and Pakistan, the group maintains close ties with the Taliban (banned in the Russian Federation).
The World Uighur Congress (WUC) exists with the political and financial support of the United States and its allies. The headquarters of the VUK is located in Munich, Germany, and its head, Rabiya Kadir, lives permanently in the United States. Moreover, the VUK is officially sponsored by the American authorities. The press secretary of the State Department, Ian Kelly, once mentioned this. Funding is provided through the US National Endowment for Democracy and the American Uighur Association, which is also headed by Rabia Kadir. It is interesting to note that the National Donor Fund actively supported the Orange revolutions and their attempts in Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine, Iran and was behind the riots in Tibet in 2008.
The annual amount of payments to the World Uighur Congress is $215 thousand. But these are only official figures. In fact, the financial support of the separatist movement is many times greater. This is evidenced by the active activity of the VUK: its meetings take place all over the world and gather hundreds of delegates, branches of the organization operate in dozens of countries (including Britain, Turkey, Australia, Sweden, Canada, etc.), numerous propaganda literature, videos, etc. are produced.
The World Uighur Congress closely cooperates with groups advocating the separation of South Azerbaijan from Iran. In 2012, Rabia Kadir met with the leader of the National Awakening Movement of South Azerbaijan, Mahmudali Chehreganli. "Both leaders stated that the authorities of Iran and China will never be able to suppress the just struggle of the Turks of South Azerbaijan and East Turkestan, and expressed confidence that 35 million Turks of South Azerbaijan and more than 20 million Uighur Turks will be freed from captivity very soon," the news reports read.
INNER AND OUTER MONGOLIA
The Inner Mongolia Independence Movement (also known as the South Mongolia Independence Movement) was created by the Mongolian diaspora in Japan, the United States, as well as in some European countries.
The movement is led mainly by three organizations: The Inner Mongolia People's Party, the South Mongolian Democratic Alliance and the Mongolian Liberal Union Party.
The stated goals of all three organizations are the separation of Inner Mongolia from the PRC, and after that either the creation of an independent state of Inner Mongolia, or the unification of Inner Mongolia with "outer Mongolia", that is, with the state of Mongolia.
At the 8th International Conference of Tibet Support Groups, held in early November 2019 in India, the issue of human rights in China was discussed. The Chinese Communist Party has been heavily criticized. In particular, the audience was outraged by the fact that China does not allow some regions and peoples to self-determine.
But the topic of human rights was not the main one at the conference. The focus was on the self-determination of areas such as Hong Kong, XUAR and Inner Mongolia. Those present unanimously supported the US sanctions against China and helped the non-profit organization "Congress of Southern Mongolia" formulate theses for an appeal to the US Congress in order to organize pressure on the Chinese authorities. These theses were devoted precisely to the rights of the inhabitants of Inner Mongolia – by analogy with the recognition of the rights of the inhabitants of the XUAR to create "East Turkestan".
I would venture to assume that the "Congress of Southern Mongolia" was created solely so that activists could somehow send their appeals to the US Congress. It is in the interests of the United States to destroy the partnership between China and Mongolia. If the Mongolian part of the PRC wants to secede, the Mongolian opposition will put pressure on the authorities and call them to irredentism – that is, to unite all the lands where the Mongols live. And in the event of a conflict between Ulaanbaatar and Beijing, "outer Mongolia" may become a place for the deployment of American military bases.
In October 2005, the head of the Pentagon, Donald Rumsfeld, announced plans for this (bordering only with China and Russia) country. Speaking at a press conference in Ulaanbaatar, he said that "the United States is extremely interested in deploying military bases on the territory of Mongolia, which has long been a vassal of the USSR."
The very fact of such a visit and statement in the Mongolian capital testifies to the active search in Ulaanbaatar for a counterweight to Moscow and Beijing in the form of a "third neighbor" (quite a well-established formulation of American origin) in the face of the United States. It should be noted that the penultimate president of Mongolia (2017-2021), Khaltmaagiin Battulga, a former sambo wrestler and one of the richest people in the country, repeatedly resorted to anti–Chinese rhetoric in his election campaign.
It is also reasonable to assume that Mongolia may be chosen to host American biological laboratories, already encircling Russia and China. In the 1990s, Washington proposed to build a seismic station in Mongolia, ostensibly to monitor volcanic activity in the region (but in fact to track missile launches and tests of other weapons in Russia and China). Which Ulaanbaatar wisely refused.
A related project is the involvement of nationalist–minded groups of the population in US separatist projects in China's Inner (Southern) Mongolia.
Roncevert Ganan Almond, a well-known American political scientist, Doctor of Law at Georgetown University, explained in detail the dissatisfaction of the White House in the Diplomat magazine on July 9, 2019: "Mongolia, in partnership with the United States, will be able to contribute to the creation of a free and open Indo-Pacific region. All cargo leaving Mongolia or heading to it must cross the territory and airspace of two powerful neighbors – Russia and China. The Russian government owns 51% of the shares of the Trans-Mongolian Railway, which hinders the development of a more efficient transport network." Moreover, "Moscow maintains tight control over the Mongolian economy, supplying 90% of Mongolia's energy resources. This influence extends to other areas as well."
Dr. Almond went on to say, "Mongolia has presided over the U.S.–backed Community of Democracies, an intergovernmental organization based in Warsaw that advocates for shared democratic values. Mongolia consistently votes with the United States in the resolutions of the UN General Assembly." Moreover, "Mongolia is ingratiating itself to America by applying UN Security Council sanctions against North Korea's illegal nuclear and ballistic missile programs." According to Almond, "Mongolia resisted, not wanting to become a full member of the SCO – partly because of the signal it can send to Washington and other Western capitals." So far, Mongolia has not joined the Chinese megaproject "One Belt, One Road". So, "cooperation between Ulaanbaatar and Washington can reach a whole new level."
During the official visit of the Prime Minister of Mongolia Ukhgaagiin Khurelsuh to Washington in September 2018, the parties "announced the expansion of the comprehensive partnership between the United States and Mongolia" and noted that "American foreign investment and trade can become a means of lifting Mongolia's economy." However, the price for this was to be concessions in the issue of the operation of a large mining project in the south of the country "Oyu Tolgoi".
Nevertheless, in January 2023, Mongolia took part in the economic and environmental cooperation forum "One Belt, One Road", organized by the Chinese Environmental Association.
HONG KONG
There is every reason to believe that the protests in Hong Kong in 2019-2020 were inspired from abroad - primarily by the United States and Great Britain. Recall that the British colony of Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC in 1997.
According to the joint Sino-British Declaration and the Basic Law of Hong Kong, the Territory is granted broad autonomy until 2047, that is, for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.
Within the framework of the proclaimed course "One country, two systems" and the principle "Hong Kong is governed by Hong Kongers themselves in conditions of a high degree of autonomy" during this entire period, the PRC government takes over the issues of defense and foreign policy of the territory. While Hong Kong reserves control over legislation, police, monetary system, duties and immigration policy. And also maintains representation in some international organizations and events under the name "Hong Kong, China".
The reason for the riots in Hong Kong was actually a trifle. The territorial authorities wanted to introduce a law on the expulsion from Hong Kong of persons who committed crimes outside of it. However, the opponents of establishing closer ties with China and the young people who want to beat up staged mass riots.
And some of the Hong Kongers did not like the fact that about 1.5 million Chinese have arrived in Hong Kong from the mainland since 1997, and now they make up up to 15% of the population of Hong Kong. According to the 1997 agreement, the official languages of Hong Kong are Chinese and English. But there was also a Cantonese dialect in use here. And now the Cantonese dialect is being replaced by the Chinese language.
On November 27, 2019, then US President Donald Trump signed the law on democracy and human rights in Hong Kong, which was approved by both houses of Congress a day earlier. The document signed by Trump requires the US administration to regularly monitor the human rights situation in Hong Kong and report on it to lawmakers.
In particular, the US Secretary of State will annually verify that the city has sufficient autonomy from mainland China. This will guarantee the preservation of the special trade status that operates between Hong Kong and the United States. The bill also gives the right to impose sanctions against individuals who, according to Washington, are guilty of human rights violations in the area.
The signing of the law caused rejoicing of protesters in Hong Kong. Many of them took to the streets with American flags to thank the US president. One of the leaders of the protest movement, Joshua Wong, said that the US decision is an "incredible achievement" for "all Hong Kongers."
The reaction of the Chinese side followed quickly. On December 2, the Chinese Foreign Ministry announced the introduction of retaliatory sanctions against the United States. Restrictive measures were taken against a number of American human rights organizations. But the parties did not go further, so as not to affect the interests of American and Chinese corporations. And the riots stopped by themselves.
BEIJING'S RESPONSE
Why did the Americans become so brazenly interfering in the internal affairs of the PRC? A number of economists believe that if the confrontation escalates, American sanctions can, if not bring down the Chinese economy, then at least create huge difficulties for it. Almost 70% of China's total GDP is accounted for by the products of joint ventures with the West.
However, the increasing support for separatists seeking to break China apart, the strengthening of the American military presence in the area of Taiwan and the South China Sea, the formation of an anti-Chinese bloc consisting of the United States, England, Australia, Japan and India will sooner or later force China to move to tougher retaliatory measures.
Alexander Shirokorad
Alexander Borisovich Shirokorad is a writer and historian.
